it became impractical to hold elections in a single, central
location. Rival claimants arose, often one for the upper class
(the patricians) and one for the lower class (the plebians).
Riots and violence often ensued, giving the Roman emperors
a perfect political opportunity to involve themselves in the
electoral process—by promising streamlined procedure
and fair voting when more than one claimant arose.
This order came with a price, however; newly elected popes
were often required to be “confirmed” (approved)
by emperors, a practice that often caused considerable delay.
Pope Nicholas II decided to do away with this popular form
of electing popes by requiring the Cardinals to elect a candidate,
which then had to be approved by lower members of the church.
This practice was later modified so that no approval was required
by lower members, and the conclave was introduced in 1274.
The conclave remained essentially unchanged until 1975, when
Pope Paul VI issued the apostolic constitution Romano
Pontifici Eligendo, which stipulated, among
other things: only cardinals can be electors; the number of
cardinals is limited to 120; and if no one is elected after
three days, one day is to be spent in prayer and meditation.
Pope John Paul II modified the conclave requirements further,
by requiring heightened security against electronic surveillance
and allowing a simple majority vote to elect a new Pope after
a certain number of unsuccessful ballots.
A simple majority used to be sufficient to elect a pope, but
in 1179 the requirement was changed to two-thirds. This proved
a difficult number to reach, but was nonetheless upheld and
is still the required majority today.
Prior to John Paul II, there were three methods by which a
new Pope could be elected: by acclamation
(a new Pope is unanimously declared quasi afflati
Spiritu Sancto (as if inspired by the Holy Spirit));
by compromise (in which certain
Cardinals are selected as delegates by the others and are
given power to act on behalf of the indecisive); and by scrutiny,
or secret ballot. All but the last were abolished by John
Paul II, so now all elections are done by secret ballot.
The Process
Following the Pope’s death is a period known as the
sede vacante, or “vacant
seat,” in which limited powers pass to the College of
Cardinals. The College makes arrangements for the Pope’s
burial—which occurs within four to six days of the Pope’s
death—and the subsequent conclave—which occurs
within 15 days of the Pope’s death (but may be extended
to 20 days to allow Cardinals in other countries to arrive).
Following the Pope’s burial is a nine day period of
mourning and reflection known as the novemdiales.
All cardinals within the college who are under the age of
80 are obligated to attend the conclave; those who are too
old can nonetheless attend, but cannot participate in the
election. On the morning of the day selected for commencement
of the conclave, the Cardinals gather in St. Peter’s
Basilica to celebrate the Eucharist (the breaking of the bread
and the taking of the wine—more commonly known as “communion”).
They later proceed to the Sistine Chapel, where they take
an oath to abide by
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the procedures set forth in the apostolic constitutions.
They further swear to defend the liberty of the Holy See,
maintain secrecy, and disregard the instructions of secular
authorities on voting.
After all the Cardinals have taken the oath, the Master of
the Papal Liturgical Celebrations orders all individuals other
than the Cardinals and conclave participants to leave the
Chapel. The Master may remain, as may one ecclesiastic designated
by the Congregations prior to the commencement of the election.
The ecclesiastic makes a speech concerning the problems facing
the Church and on the qualities the new Pope must have, and
then takes his leave. Following a recitation of prayers, the
Cardinal Dean asks if there are any remaining doubts relating
to procedure. After the clarification of any reservations,
the election begins. Cardinals who arrive after the conclave
has begun are nonetheless admitted. A Cardinal who has fallen
ill may leave the conclave and later be readmitted, but a
Cardinal who leaves for any other reason may not return to
the conclave.
A small number of servants, doctors, and other assistants
are allowed into the conclave to assist with the preparation
of meals, the taking of confessions, and other general tasks,
but no one is allowed to correspond with anyone outside the
conclave by any means.
A single ballot is held on the afternoon of the first day.
If no one is elected, four ballots are held on each successive
day—two in the morning and
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